Women and WWII: A study through images.

During World War II there was a sense of widespread support from Australian women on the home front. A Women's Australian National Service group was set up in 1940, and in 1941 the government announced that women would be ableto enrolin the various forces. Only nurses were able to serve overseas, while the other arms of government forces were to be served by women on the home front to allow more men to be sent abroad for active service.

You are to examine the various artefacts below from the period and assess the changes in attitudes and roles for women during this time.Before you start you are to read the following paragraph and keep this in mind when completing your activities!

Max Horkheimer and Theodore Adorno

Max Horkheimer and Theodore Adorno were German sociological theorists during the time of Nazi rule within Germany. Their context is important as it explains a lot of their ideological thought. They argue that all mass popular culture (e.g. films, TV shows, music, even posters!! *hint hint*) is designed within a framework to manipulate the public into a certain way of thinking. They argue in doing this, the chosen form of media allows the audience to be made happy and means that less people will go against public opinion and stay within the expectations of society. Basically, the higher powers (like government and big businesses) who design and support these forms of popular culture do so to force an image or push a certain way of public thought.

Horkheimer and Adorno were both opposed to Nazi policy, and so formed a somewhat negative view on cultural production. However, their idea that all mass culture is produced with the intention of manipulating the view of the audience is important, particularly in relation to history and the analysis of sources. All sources will have elements of bias, and have been designed with this in mind. Your task today is to examine this bias and assess each artefacts historical integrity - i.e. you must analyse each artefact and decide wether or not the bias makes it a valid source or not! You have been given a task sheet to complete, and now it is time to examine the sources!

ARTEFACT ONE: A WWII recruitment poster aimed at women showing six women in the WRAN, AWAS, WAAAF, AWLA, AAMWS, and a munitions worker.

Join us in a victory job [Image](1943). Retrieved June

22, 2011, from http://cas.awm.gov.au/item/ARTV00332

This artefact is a propaganda poster designed to encourage women to enlist in national service during the Second World War. Designed by government recruitment officers, it represents the hegemonic perspective of society at the time. It represents the efforts made by women throughout the war in various jobs that had not typically been performed by females. It provides the audience with the perspective and impression of the value and importance placed on women’s war time efforts, encompassing an all-inclusive feel of national community. Such a sentiment is represented in much of Australian national identity. Commonly known as the country of a “fair go”, this type of wartime representation (particularly at a time where most of the world was fighting Fascist leaderships) contributed, and continues to contribute, to this ideal within Australia’s national mythology. As Horkheimer and Adorno argue, everything is produced with a purpose to appeal to the masses and “numb” society (1972). As already noted, this poster’s purpose is to encourage female recruitment into women’s wartime roles. From a view such as Horkheimer and Adorno’s, this poster could be said to have been designed to appeal to the bulk of the Australian population at the time, and manipulate their morale and turning them into ‘cultural dupes.’ Such a view is most probably correct, however, the validity of the source still makes it useful when examining historical perspectives. The artefact provides a useful basis for constructing an idea of government aims at the time, and although the source is arguably designed to manipulate it’s audience it cannot be said to be all bad as the manipulation was for good intent and incurred positive repercussions for Australian wartime efforts and later, women’s rights and freedoms. It is a useful artefact for communicating historical information and perspective, particularly within an educational framework.

ARTEFACT TWO: WWII poster illustrating the role of women's home front efforts and their contribution to the overall national war effort

Our job to

c

lothe the men who work and fight [Image] (c.1943). Retrieved June 22, 2011, from http://cas.awm.gov.au/item/ARTV01064

This artefact is also a poster encouraging women to participate in the war effort. The poster portrays a woman who is happy to care for her countrymen who are away fighting for her. The most notable difference between this poster and artefact one is that this poster emphasises a typical caring and domestic role of women within the society of the time. Artefact one had illustrated and encouraged women’s service in roles within the Air Force and Army (previously only allowing male participation), however this artefact seems to encourage the women into the labour force where they will be able to provide for men at war and the nation. It represents and reinforces societal trends and attitudes towards women at the time. Although it constructs a view of women as carers for men within society, through smaller illustrations it also constructs a perspective of hard work, dedication and loyalty. These characteristics are often held high as “Australian values” and therefore contribute to the building of national mythology. The hard work of both the men abroad fighting the war, and women at home diligently supporting the war efforts through participation in the labour force illustrates to the audience these values of determination and support through tough times. Horkheimer and Adorno argue through their theory of “culture industries” this propaganda is to be consumed and is deliberately constructed to exploit the masses (1972). With consideration to this poster, it is hard not to argue otherwise. The poster has deliberately been designed to exploit the situation of a male-dominant class, emphasising the caring role of women within Australian society at the time. However, it’s historically educational value should not be undermined because of this. It clearly communicates to the audience the attitudes regarding men and women’s roles within society, which is important to study during this period of time.

ARTEFACT THREE: Australian Army Women's

Medical Service (AAWMS) recruitment poster showing the types of jobs available in this arm of service for women.

Australian Army Women's Medical Service recruitment poster [Image] (c. 1943). Retrieved June 22, 2011, from http://vrroom.naa.gov.au/records/?ID=18890

This artefact is another propaganda poster from the Second World War designed to mobilise female support for the war effort. This poster plays on themes from both artefact 1 and artefact 2. As in artefact 1, the source encourages female participation in all war efforts where they may have previously been excluded. However, it is similar to artefact 2 in that it plays on existing female roles within society as carers. The source also emphasises the role of women as nurses, not doctors, again arguably belittling the role of women within society. The artefact communicates that in participating in a role with the Australian Army Medical Women’s Service, women would be making a worthwhile contribution to the country, the war effort and the men serving. Sentiments of compassion and loyalty are played upon to appeal to the mass of Australian women. These emotions raised within the poster are also contributors to national identity and mythology in constructing a typical figure within Australian society. This construction of a national identity and mythology; of a typical character within the broader scope of the Australian community, can be viewed by Horkheimer and Adorno as a deliberate manipulation of public emotion to create a false need, use and position of women within society by those in power (i.e. government). Aspects of Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory are hard to ignore, particularly when examining propaganda sources such as this where intention is inarguably obvious to the retrospective audience. However this does not render the source invalid because of its bias. Rather it makes it useful, particularly within the realms of History Education, as it provides a perspective of attitudes and roles within a specific time period, allowing contemporary societies to identify with their past and see how their communities, however broad or localised, have developed over time.

ARTEFACT FOUR: The formal documentation for recommendation of the Associate of the Royal Red Cross (ARRC) award for Lieutenant Vivian Bullwinkle.

Vivian Bullwinkle's citation of award for ARRC [Image] (1946). Retrieved June 22, 2011, from http://vrroom.naa.gov.au/records/?ID=19601

This image is of the official documentation of Lieutenant Vivian Bullwinkel’s nomination for the ARRC award. This award was only given to wartime nurses who had shown exceptional service. It is an excellent representation of the contribution made to the forces during WWII by women. Through Bullwinkel’s outstanding courage, bravery, dedication and service, she portrayed some of the ultimate “Australian” characteristics. Surviving evacuation, massacre and a Prisoner of War (POW) camp, Bullwinkel became an icon for the Australian image. Documents such as this have been celebrated throughout Australian national history and contribute greatly to the creation of a national identity and mythology. Although this document itself does not sensationalise any of Bullwinkel’s efforts or experiences, the characteristics implied through the document are those that the Australian nation had held in high regard as qualities of the people, particularly those fighting and participating in any of the war efforts. Considering Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory of Culture Industries, such documentation is hard to analyse, as it was not initially designed for a large-scale audience. Unlike the propaganda posters previously, this document was merely a recommendation for an award without any obvious governmental or populist slant. This may place some questions to Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory, and is interesting to examine. The source does effectively communicate a nationalist history, particularly when thinking about the ideals of national identity. As Ann Curthoys (2003) notes, these smaller triumphant sorts of stories are more identifiable with the general population – “Local stories display[ed] universal themes and patterns” (p. 26). In this regard, you could use Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory and apply it to the publication and celebration of this particular person in time. The national celebration of someone like Bullwinkel by governments and other important organisations within Australian society manipulates the Australian population into valuing these human characteristics also.

ARTEFACT FIVE: A photograph of a female munitions worker in 1940.

Munitions factory worker [Image] (1940). Retrieved June 21, 2011, from http://vrroom.naa.gov.au/records/?ID=19182

This artefact represents the transition to less traditional roles of women in the wartime effort. As illustrated through previous artefacts, throughout the Second World War, Australian women were asked to participate in jobs within fields that they had not previously been included in. This was partly to do with restrictions on married women being allowed to work, and also largely due to the woman’s role within society being primarily in the home. This artefact shows a woman working in a munitions factory during the war, a previously male dominated arena in the work force. The work involves lots of machinery and many women had previously either not worked, or had participated in roles that required “less” skill or training. This artefact is significant because it shows the progression towards the inclusion of women in the labour workplace throughout the war. It constructs an ideal of inclusion for women within the society; again portraying to the audience that society at the time valued the contributions made to the war effort by Australian women. This ideal is streamed throughout much of Australia’s national history, illustrated in previous artefacts. The construction of a national history that celebrates the contribution of the individual to the overall cause of the country is popular within Australia. Curthoys (2003) notes this also, stating, “Australian history has for several decades been written largely by and for Australians, and has a large local audience” (p. 22). This perspective lends itself to Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory, perhaps demonstrating that each history is written with a purpose. This purpose is to either shed light on, or ignore, a certain element of national history. For example, in this photograph rather than showing the exclusion of women from the work force at the time, it celebrates the inclusion of women and value that they brought to the home front effort during the Second World War. The study of such selective histories, and the study of changing societal roles and attitudes is important in history education as it allows the audience to identify themselves within a larger national narrative and see how they have developed over time. As Peter Sexias (2006) outlines, it is important to note what history is being taught and why there is an emphasis on this history.

ARTEFACT SIX: Cartoon taken from The Bulletin newspaper on February 17, 1943. The cartoon illustrates the changes in women's attitudes towards work after the war and their experiences in the work force.

"I don't think I could ever go back to housework after this!" [Image] (17 February, 1943). Retrieved June 21, 2011, from http://www.dva.gov.au/commems_oawg/commemorations/education/Documents/DVA_Women_in_War_part3.pdf

This artefact is a cartoon taken from a popular newspaper in 1943. It depicts a growing popular attitude amongst women at the time who were expected to go back to domestic duties at the end of the war. Because they had experienced the “real” work force, many women wished to stay working. This picture represents a feminist perspective of history, portraying the growth in feminist working ideals. It produces a picture of an increasingly independent woman and an ambitious individual. Although popular belief at the time was that a woman’s place was in the home, this feeling of ambition is also apparent in national mythology. It again produces an image of Australia as an equal-opportunity nation, even though this idea was still developing at the time. In terms of cultural theory, Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory could apply here. Although the feminist movement was becoming stronger, it was not the dominant view of society at the time. It could be seen, however, to produce a feeling within society that women should be entitled to work in all industries regardless of sex or marital status. It was designed specifically to manipulate a certain belief or feeling within the audience. Cartoons are especially useful within history education as it allows the audience to view different perspectives. This one has an obvious aim, purpose and agenda that lends itself to interpretation. Such a skill is important in the development of historical consciousness and education (Sexias 2006).

As a child, most of what I can remember was playing dress ups with my younger sister and writing (now hilarious) entries in my diary. I bought it with my very own money for my seventh birthday. Although most memories from that period are ‘touch-and-go’, I do remember loving to read. And write. And talk a lot of rubbish. Not much has changed.

Growing up, Mum would read to my sister and I every night. I had a few obvious serial favourites – Clifford the Big Red Dog, Hairy MacLary (we were a dog-loving family)

But the ones that have really stuck in my memory are ‘The Moons and the Clouds’ and ‘The Big Scary House’. Why? Quite simply because they had glow in the dark pictures!

But these pictures helped me follow the story line, when I then probably did not understand the text on its own. Mum has told me that I could read simple words from about 2 ½ - 3 years of age. From my new studies in literacy development, I would now say much of this would have been word association with the pictures. I had come to understand what the pictures were and meant, and how they correlated to the story line of choice that evening.

Mum started reading to me from about 6-9 months old from picture books, and as I grew up this progressed into what Mum calls “touchy-feely” books (I have alerted her to the appropriateness of this colloquial title, given the age I would have been and the connotations with the saying). Looking back, though, this makes me think again

that this would have been helpful for me in developing links with pictures, and sensory development to different textures. These pictures would have made words and meanings easier for me to understand as I could identify the physical representation, which helped with the abstract idea of this thing with four legs that felt a different way to everything else I knew, was actually an animal that had a name. This was I, completely unaware, using a semiotic system within a personal and cultural frame.

This use of signs and symbols to convey meaning is referred to as a semiotic system (Anstey & Bull, 2004). Each semiotic system has its own set of codes and conventions (such as written language with grammar and punctuation, or as with my visual and sensory texts with different colours, shapes and textures) which are generally acquired “subconsciously by exposure to models... and practice within social groups, without formal teaching” (Gee 1992, p. 113 as cited in Anstey & Bull, 2004 p.8). I acquired the skills to recognise these visual texts and link them to everyday physical objects and creatures without any awareness of my actual learning processes. This is a crucial form of literacy, as it forms part of the understanding and basis for the codes and conventions used in everyday situations – i.e. language.

Gee (1992) suggests that although these literacy skills are picked up at a young age, this does not automatically make us literate. Rather, we have picked up on the skills required of us to understand the literacy tools in our sociocultural environment (Anstey & Bull, 2004 p. 12). As Santoro suggests (2004) “we can think of literacy not merely as a single set of skills, but as a way of operating with a variety of texts within particular sets of social situations… Literacy practices are embedded in the practices of our everyday lives” (Winch et al. 2004, as cited in Santoro 2004, p. 52). For me at this stage in my literacy development, this was recognising and using simple forms of language. This way of learning for me was in line with the theories and approaches to learning in the late 80s. A shift toward a “view of literacy as a social practice” (Anstey & Bull, 2004 p. 20) benefited me at pre-school and my early infants’ years at school, as I had been read to and reading to myself from a young age. It was considered an important social and cultural skill for me to be able to read, write and understand language. By the time I had grown up in to a fun-and-vegemite-loving toddler, Mum had introduced me to more books, but this time with more text. There were still adequate amounts of illustrations, but the words and stories became longer. The one I could first read without (much) help from a big person was ‘Who Will Play with me?’ (It’s hard being the daggy, older sister. I still frequently ask this question). Then there were the age-old favourites by Dr Seuss – Green Eggs and Ham, The

Cat in the Hat and Sam I Am. From an early age I was going to a day care lady. She was Italian, and apparently I used to be able to speak a little of the language also. Although, I’m sure I just made some of it up in the hope of sounding exotic and clever. Again, I have not changed much at all. Elisa used to teach us how to do a lot of things – cook, tie our shoelaces... sit still. As well as assisting with my reading, she was also the one who started to teach me how to start writing letters, which Mum also encouraged and picked up at home. By the time I went to pre-school at about 3 ½ - 4, I could write basic words. I remember thinking I was incredibly clever by spelling my name “Bath”, instead of “Beth”. What was the difference, really? Plus, that way I got my name in some books! I was soon brought back to reality and taught that there is actually a reasonable difference in the sounds of ‘a’ and ‘e’. Nice try. I soon learnt the difference one I got to school. We learnt the sounds and use of letters mostly through phonics, and ‘read and say’ repetition activities.

As mentioned, the push toward a more sociolinguistic approach to literacy during the 1980s meant that the various types of literacies were linked to what you were introduced to and socialised with. Previously, it was thought that literacy development was linked with cognitive development. This meant you developed your reading, writing and understanding skills as you would your ‘thinking’ skills. Essentially, your language development progressed in sync with your learning. This is referred to as the psycholinguistic approach, which is also in line with Piaget’s theory that suggests that cognitive development must come before learning (Woolfolk & Margetts 2007, p. 54). During my schooling, these debates were ongoing and so literacy was taught through a mixture of both approach (Anstey & Bull 2004, p. 21)

Anstey and Bull (2004, p. 20) list several literacy strategies that were practiced during the 1980s and early 1990s, which fit in with my education (I started kindergarten in 1994). I can remember using a hybrid model of approaches in the infants years of primary – using ‘look and say’ spelling lists, using ‘Big Books’ as a whole language approach, and the use of phonics to sound out letters, particularly vowels (I still use ‘a, e, i, o, u’ when playing hangman), and words. However, there was an emphasis on reading groups, which linked in to ideas of natural models of learning, and the integration of all language models. Reading groups were often divided into ability groups, however, so the idea of literacy as cultural capital or power is well illustrated.

I can remember a South American girl in my class who, now looking back, would struggle to read aloud to the class. It is suggested “individuals gain access to knowledge through language (power) if they possess particular codes or dialects, class and ethnicity” (Anstey & Bull, 2004 p. 20). With this in mind, Carmen did not have the same sociocultural skills to access the same kinds of language and learning tools as I did. Most of my ‘social circles’ as a child were with English-speaking Australians. Carmen on the other hand mostly came from a non-English speaking family and background, and was met with barriers to language when she arrived at school. I had been ‘trained’, if you like, in code breaking.

Luke and Freebody’s (1999) ‘Four Resources Model’ suggests that be literate, you are able to utilise four modes of text deconstruction. The first being encoding and decoding texts. Simply, this means being able to “recognise and use the alphabet, sounds in words, spelling, conventions and patterns of sentence structure and text” (p. 7). At a pre-school, and lower primary age, I had developed these skills to unpack the texts I needed to use to help get me ahead and further develop my understanding of language. This can also be referred to as ‘functional’ literacy.

Now I am at university, I can recognise that I use a more ‘critical’ literacy approach, also known as a ‘text analyst’ approach to texts and sources, particularly with my focus being on History and Cultural Studies. This links in with the ‘text user’ approach also, in so that I am able to recognise the various contexts and agendas of texts and as such am able to analyse them.

My literacy development started off very basic, and casual. I learnt how to read and write mostly in a casual, informal way at home and at day care. This prepared me for further literacy development at pre-school, primary school and helped me through all of high school where I learnt my critical thinking and analytical skills. It is funny to look back at my development, but is also a massive realisation at how much your literacy does develop over time with the introduction of new ideas and learning in your life.