Women and WWII: A study through images.

During World War II there was a sense of widespread support from Australian women on the home front. A Women's Australian National Service group was set up in 1940, and in 1941 the government announced that women would be ableto enrolin the various forces. Only nurses were able to serve overseas, while the other arms of government forces were to be served by women on the home front to allow more men to be sent abroad for active service.

You are to examine the various artefacts below from the period and assess the changes in attitudes and roles for women during this time.Before you start you are to read the following paragraph and keep this in mind when completing your activities!

Max Horkheimer and Theodore Adorno

Max Horkheimer and Theodore Adorno were German sociological theorists during the time of Nazi rule within Germany. Their context is important as it explains a lot of their ideological thought. They argue that all mass popular culture (e.g. films, TV shows, music, even posters!! *hint hint*) is designed within a framework to manipulate the public into a certain way of thinking. They argue in doing this, the chosen form of media allows the audience to be made happy and means that less people will go against public opinion and stay within the expectations of society. Basically, the higher powers (like government and big businesses) who design and support these forms of popular culture do so to force an image or push a certain way of public thought.

Horkheimer and Adorno were both opposed to Nazi policy, and so formed a somewhat negative view on cultural production. However, their idea that all mass culture is produced with the intention of manipulating the view of the audience is important, particularly in relation to history and the analysis of sources. All sources will have elements of bias, and have been designed with this in mind. Your task today is to examine this bias and assess each artefacts historical integrity - i.e. you must analyse each artefact and decide wether or not the bias makes it a valid source or not! You have been given a task sheet to complete, and now it is time to examine the sources!

ARTEFACT ONE: A WWII recruitment poster aimed at women showing six women in the WRAN, AWAS, WAAAF, AWLA, AAMWS, and a munitions worker.

Join us in a victory job [Image](1943). Retrieved June

22, 2011, from http://cas.awm.gov.au/item/ARTV00332

This artefact is a propaganda poster designed to encourage women to enlist in national service during the Second World War. Designed by government recruitment officers, it represents the hegemonic perspective of society at the time. It represents the efforts made by women throughout the war in various jobs that had not typically been performed by females. It provides the audience with the perspective and impression of the value and importance placed on women’s war time efforts, encompassing an all-inclusive feel of national community. Such a sentiment is represented in much of Australian national identity. Commonly known as the country of a “fair go”, this type of wartime representation (particularly at a time where most of the world was fighting Fascist leaderships) contributed, and continues to contribute, to this ideal within Australia’s national mythology. As Horkheimer and Adorno argue, everything is produced with a purpose to appeal to the masses and “numb” society (1972). As already noted, this poster’s purpose is to encourage female recruitment into women’s wartime roles. From a view such as Horkheimer and Adorno’s, this poster could be said to have been designed to appeal to the bulk of the Australian population at the time, and manipulate their morale and turning them into ‘cultural dupes.’ Such a view is most probably correct, however, the validity of the source still makes it useful when examining historical perspectives. The artefact provides a useful basis for constructing an idea of government aims at the time, and although the source is arguably designed to manipulate it’s audience it cannot be said to be all bad as the manipulation was for good intent and incurred positive repercussions for Australian wartime efforts and later, women’s rights and freedoms. It is a useful artefact for communicating historical information and perspective, particularly within an educational framework.

ARTEFACT TWO: WWII poster illustrating the role of women's home front efforts and their contribution to the overall national war effort

Our job to

c

lothe the men who work and fight [Image] (c.1943). Retrieved June 22, 2011, from http://cas.awm.gov.au/item/ARTV01064

This artefact is also a poster encouraging women to participate in the war effort. The poster portrays a woman who is happy to care for her countrymen who are away fighting for her. The most notable difference between this poster and artefact one is that this poster emphasises a typical caring and domestic role of women within the society of the time. Artefact one had illustrated and encouraged women’s service in roles within the Air Force and Army (previously only allowing male participation), however this artefact seems to encourage the women into the labour force where they will be able to provide for men at war and the nation. It represents and reinforces societal trends and attitudes towards women at the time. Although it constructs a view of women as carers for men within society, through smaller illustrations it also constructs a perspective of hard work, dedication and loyalty. These characteristics are often held high as “Australian values” and therefore contribute to the building of national mythology. The hard work of both the men abroad fighting the war, and women at home diligently supporting the war efforts through participation in the labour force illustrates to the audience these values of determination and support through tough times. Horkheimer and Adorno argue through their theory of “culture industries” this propaganda is to be consumed and is deliberately constructed to exploit the masses (1972). With consideration to this poster, it is hard not to argue otherwise. The poster has deliberately been designed to exploit the situation of a male-dominant class, emphasising the caring role of women within Australian society at the time. However, it’s historically educational value should not be undermined because of this. It clearly communicates to the audience the attitudes regarding men and women’s roles within society, which is important to study during this period of time.

ARTEFACT THREE: Australian Army Women's

Medical Service (AAWMS) recruitment poster showing the types of jobs available in this arm of service for women.

Australian Army Women's Medical Service recruitment poster [Image] (c. 1943). Retrieved June 22, 2011, from http://vrroom.naa.gov.au/records/?ID=18890

This artefact is another propaganda poster from the Second World War designed to mobilise female support for the war effort. This poster plays on themes from both artefact 1 and artefact 2. As in artefact 1, the source encourages female participation in all war efforts where they may have previously been excluded. However, it is similar to artefact 2 in that it plays on existing female roles within society as carers. The source also emphasises the role of women as nurses, not doctors, again arguably belittling the role of women within society. The artefact communicates that in participating in a role with the Australian Army Medical Women’s Service, women would be making a worthwhile contribution to the country, the war effort and the men serving. Sentiments of compassion and loyalty are played upon to appeal to the mass of Australian women. These emotions raised within the poster are also contributors to national identity and mythology in constructing a typical figure within Australian society. This construction of a national identity and mythology; of a typical character within the broader scope of the Australian community, can be viewed by Horkheimer and Adorno as a deliberate manipulation of public emotion to create a false need, use and position of women within society by those in power (i.e. government). Aspects of Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory are hard to ignore, particularly when examining propaganda sources such as this where intention is inarguably obvious to the retrospective audience. However this does not render the source invalid because of its bias. Rather it makes it useful, particularly within the realms of History Education, as it provides a perspective of attitudes and roles within a specific time period, allowing contemporary societies to identify with their past and see how their communities, however broad or localised, have developed over time.

ARTEFACT FOUR: The formal documentation for recommendation of the Associate of the Royal Red Cross (ARRC) award for Lieutenant Vivian Bullwinkle.

Vivian Bullwinkle's citation of award for ARRC [Image] (1946). Retrieved June 22, 2011, from http://vrroom.naa.gov.au/records/?ID=19601

This image is of the official documentation of Lieutenant Vivian Bullwinkel’s nomination for the ARRC award. This award was only given to wartime nurses who had shown exceptional service. It is an excellent representation of the contribution made to the forces during WWII by women. Through Bullwinkel’s outstanding courage, bravery, dedication and service, she portrayed some of the ultimate “Australian” characteristics. Surviving evacuation, massacre and a Prisoner of War (POW) camp, Bullwinkel became an icon for the Australian image. Documents such as this have been celebrated throughout Australian national history and contribute greatly to the creation of a national identity and mythology. Although this document itself does not sensationalise any of Bullwinkel’s efforts or experiences, the characteristics implied through the document are those that the Australian nation had held in high regard as qualities of the people, particularly those fighting and participating in any of the war efforts. Considering Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory of Culture Industries, such documentation is hard to analyse, as it was not initially designed for a large-scale audience. Unlike the propaganda posters previously, this document was merely a recommendation for an award without any obvious governmental or populist slant. This may place some questions to Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory, and is interesting to examine. The source does effectively communicate a nationalist history, particularly when thinking about the ideals of national identity. As Ann Curthoys (2003) notes, these smaller triumphant sorts of stories are more identifiable with the general population – “Local stories display[ed] universal themes and patterns” (p. 26). In this regard, you could use Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory and apply it to the publication and celebration of this particular person in time. The national celebration of someone like Bullwinkel by governments and other important organisations within Australian society manipulates the Australian population into valuing these human characteristics also.

ARTEFACT FIVE: A photograph of a female munitions worker in 1940.

Munitions factory worker [Image] (1940). Retrieved June 21, 2011, from http://vrroom.naa.gov.au/records/?ID=19182

This artefact represents the transition to less traditional roles of women in the wartime effort. As illustrated through previous artefacts, throughout the Second World War, Australian women were asked to participate in jobs within fields that they had not previously been included in. This was partly to do with restrictions on married women being allowed to work, and also largely due to the woman’s role within society being primarily in the home. This artefact shows a woman working in a munitions factory during the war, a previously male dominated arena in the work force. The work involves lots of machinery and many women had previously either not worked, or had participated in roles that required “less” skill or training. This artefact is significant because it shows the progression towards the inclusion of women in the labour workplace throughout the war. It constructs an ideal of inclusion for women within the society; again portraying to the audience that society at the time valued the contributions made to the war effort by Australian women. This ideal is streamed throughout much of Australia’s national history, illustrated in previous artefacts. The construction of a national history that celebrates the contribution of the individual to the overall cause of the country is popular within Australia. Curthoys (2003) notes this also, stating, “Australian history has for several decades been written largely by and for Australians, and has a large local audience” (p. 22). This perspective lends itself to Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory, perhaps demonstrating that each history is written with a purpose. This purpose is to either shed light on, or ignore, a certain element of national history. For example, in this photograph rather than showing the exclusion of women from the work force at the time, it celebrates the inclusion of women and value that they brought to the home front effort during the Second World War. The study of such selective histories, and the study of changing societal roles and attitudes is important in history education as it allows the audience to identify themselves within a larger national narrative and see how they have developed over time. As Peter Sexias (2006) outlines, it is important to note what history is being taught and why there is an emphasis on this history.

ARTEFACT SIX: Cartoon taken from The Bulletin newspaper on February 17, 1943. The cartoon illustrates the changes in women's attitudes towards work after the war and their experiences in the work force.

"I don't think I could ever go back to housework after this!" [Image] (17 February, 1943). Retrieved June 21, 2011, from http://www.dva.gov.au/commems_oawg/commemorations/education/Documents/DVA_Women_in_War_part3.pdf

This artefact is a cartoon taken from a popular newspaper in 1943. It depicts a growing popular attitude amongst women at the time who were expected to go back to domestic duties at the end of the war. Because they had experienced the “real” work force, many women wished to stay working. This picture represents a feminist perspective of history, portraying the growth in feminist working ideals. It produces a picture of an increasingly independent woman and an ambitious individual. Although popular belief at the time was that a woman’s place was in the home, this feeling of ambition is also apparent in national mythology. It again produces an image of Australia as an equal-opportunity nation, even though this idea was still developing at the time. In terms of cultural theory, Horkheimer and Adorno’s theory could apply here. Although the feminist movement was becoming stronger, it was not the dominant view of society at the time. It could be seen, however, to produce a feeling within society that women should be entitled to work in all industries regardless of sex or marital status. It was designed specifically to manipulate a certain belief or feeling within the audience. Cartoons are especially useful within history education as it allows the audience to view different perspectives. This one has an obvious aim, purpose and agenda that lends itself to interpretation. Such a skill is important in the development of historical consciousness and education (Sexias 2006).